Prelim Oriented
Indian Electoral System
First Past the Post (FPTP) System
- FPTP is a simple-majority electoral system where the highest vote-getter wins.
- Used in India, UK, and Canada for legislative elections.
- Operates through single-member constituencies, electing one representative each.
- How It Works
- Plurality rule: Candidate with the most votes wins, even without 50% support.
- Direct contest between individuals within territorial constituencies.
- Advantages
- Simplicity: Easy to understand and implement, with straightforward vote counting.
- Stable governments: Often produces clear majorities even without majority vote share.
- Direct representation: Each constituency has a dedicated accountable representative.
- Clear accountability: Poor performers can be removed directly by voters.
- Disadvantages
- Disproportionality: Seat share often diverges sharply from vote share.
- Wasted votes: Votes for losing candidates do not influence seat outcomes.
- Minority rule: Candidates can win despite majority of voters choosing others.
- Geographic bias: Concentrated support yields more seats than evenly spread support.
- Gerrymandering risk: Boundary manipulation can favour particular parties.
Proportional Representation (PR) System
- PR allocates seats proportionate to each party’s vote share.
- Designed to reflect overall voter preferences more accurately than FPTP.
- How It Works
- Uses party lists and multi-member districts for proportional seat distribution.
- Electoral thresholds prevent excessive fragmentation.
- Types of PR
- List PR: Seat allocation based solely on party vote share.
- Mixed-Member PR: Voters cast two votes—one for candidate, one for party.
- Single Transferable Vote (STV): Voters rank candidates; votes transfer per preferences.
- Advantages
- Fair representation: Seat distribution mirrors vote share closely.
- Greater diversity: Enables minority groups and small parties to enter legislatures.
- Fewer wasted votes: Most votes contribute to electing representatives.
- Higher turnout: Voters perceive greater value in participation.
- Disadvantages
- Coalition dependence: Often produces coalition governments, sometimes unstable.
- Complexity: Requires greater administrative effort and voter understanding.
- Fragmentation: Many small parties can hinder consensus-building.
- Weak constituency link: Representatives are more tied to parties than local voters.
- Leadership dominance: Party elites control candidate lists, reducing individual accountability.
International Practices
- Brazil, Argentina, South Africa, Netherlands, Belgium, Spain: Use party-list PR systems.
- Germany: 598 seats split equally—50% FPTP and 50% PR, with 5% threshold.
- New Zealand: 120 seats; 60% FPTP and 40% PR, with 5% threshold.
National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT)
About NCLAT
- NCLAT is a quasi-judicial body established under Section 410 of the Companies Act, 2013.
- It was created to hear appeals against decisions of the National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT).
- It has been functional since 1 June 2016, ensuring timely corporate dispute resolution.
- Its mandate is to promote transparency, efficiency, and speedy disposal in insolvency and corporate governance cases.
- Key Functions
- Hears appeals against NCLT orders under Section 61 of the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC).
- Considers appeals against orders by the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (IBBI) under Sections 202 and 211.
- Hears appeals against orders of the Competition Commission of India (CCI).
- Handles matters related to the National Financial Reporting Authority (NFRA).
- Provides advisory opinions when legal issues are referred by the President of India.
- Structure and Headquarters
- Headquartered in New Delhi.
- Comprises a Chairperson, Judicial Members, and Technical Members appointed by the Central Government.
- Members possess expertise in law, finance, accountancy, and administration.
- Powers and Procedures
- NCLAT can regulate its own procedure and has powers equivalent to a civil court under the CPC, 1908.
- It can summon witnesses, receive affidavits, and enforce production of documents.
- Its orders are enforceable as civil court decrees.
- Appeals against NCLAT decisions lie with the Supreme Court of India.
- Civil courts have no jurisdiction over matters handled by NCLAT.
- No authority may issue injunctions against actions legally taken by NCLAT.
- It aims to dispose of appeals within six months, ensuring swift resolution.
Geographical Indication (GI) Tag
Context: Gujarat’s Ambaji white marble received Geographical Indication tag for its high-quality stone, recognized by Ministry of Commerce’s GI Registry for unique characteristics and durability.
More in News:
- GI tag granted to Ambaji Marbles Quarry and Factory Association in Banaskantha district; recognizes products possessing unique qualities linked to geographical origin in Gujarat.
- Marble mines date back 1,200-1,500 years, coinciding with Dilwara Jain Temple construction in Mount Abu; temple’s enduring beauty proves marble’s remarkable durability.
- Known for high calcium content and strength; Ambaji marble used in temple construction in United States, New Zealand, England, showcasing international demand for material.
Geographical Indication (GI) Tag
- Definition
- A Geographical Indication (GI) is a sign used on products that originate from a specific geographical location.
- The product must possess distinct qualities, characteristics, or reputation attributable to that origin.
- Application
- GI tags apply to agricultural, natural, and manufactured goods.
- They also cover handicraft, industrial goods, and food items.
- GI protection ensures recognition of local heritage and traditional skills.
- Protection
- GI tagging offers legal protection to genuine producers.
- It prevents unauthorized entities from using the product’s name without permission.
- This safeguards producers from misuse, duplication, and unfair competition.
- Global Framework
- GI is covered under the Paris Convention (1883) for industrial property protection.
- It is also protected under the TRIPS Agreement (Trade-Related Aspects of IPR) of the WTO.
Indian Framework
- Governed by the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999, enforced in 2003.
- Duration of registration is 10 years, and it is renewable.
- The GI Registry is located in Chennai.
- The Registrar of GI is the Controller General of Patents, Designs and Trade Marks.
- Nodal department: DPIIT, Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
Current Status in India
- First GI tag: Darjeeling Tea (2004–05).
- Total GI tags as of July 2024: 605.
- Uttar Pradesh has the highest number, followed by Tamil Nadu.
Birsa Munda
About
- Birsa Munda was a tribal freedom fighter, religious reformer and folk hero who led resistance against British exploitation in Chotanagpur.
- Revered as “Dharti Aaba” (Father of the Earth).
Early Life
- Born: 15 November 1875, Ulihatu (now Khunti district, Jharkhand).
- Family: Poor sharecropper (sajhadar) Munda family.
- Born as Daud Munda after temporary Christian conversion in family.
- Educated at mission schools and BEL School, Chaibasa; initially influenced by Christianity.
- Later rejected missionary influence and absorbed ideas from Vaishnavism and Anand Panre.
- Founded his own spiritual order, the Birsait sect, and was worshipped as Bhagwan.
Beliefs and Teachings
- Promoted monotheism through worship of Singhbonga.
- Opposed alcoholism, witchcraft, superstitions, and beth begari (forced labour).
- Emphasised clean living, tribal unity, cultural pride, and community land ownership.
Colonial Exploitation and Ulgulan
- British destroyed traditional Khuntkatti communal land system.
- Zamindars and thikadars exploited tribals, causing displacement and bonded labour.
- Birsa mobilised tribals to reclaim rights and resist exploitation.
- Led the Ulgulan (Great Rebellion) with slogan: “Abua raj ete jana, maharani raj tundu jana.”
- Arrested in 1895, released in 1897, revived agitation.
- Died of cholera in 1900, ending active revolt phase.
Legacy
- Resulted in Chotanagpur Tenancy Act, 1908:
- Protected tribal land rights and Khuntkatti system.
- Banned land transfer to non-tribals.
- Abolished beth begari.
- 15 November celebrated as Janjatiya Gaurav Divas since 2021.
- Remembered as a visionary leader who inspired tribal assertion and rights.
Janjatiya Gaurav Divas
About
- Janjatiya Gaurav Divas dedicated to memory of brave tribal freedom fighters’ sacrifices.
- Aims to educate coming generations about tribal communities’ contributions to India’s independence.
Significance of Date
- Celebrated on November 15, the birth anniversary of Birsa Munda revered as Bhagwan.
- Birsa Munda fought against exploitative British colonial system, spearheaded revolutionary movements courageously.
- Gave call for ‘Ulgulan’ (Revolution) against British oppression inspiring tribal resistance nationwide.
Tribal Contribution to Freedom Struggle
- Tribal communities strengthened India’s freedom struggle through several movements across regions.
- Santhals, Tamars, Kols, Bhils, Khasis, Mizos among prominent tribal communities fighting for independence.
Objectives
- Acknowledges glorious history and cultural heritage of tribal communities in India’s development.
- Celebrated annually recognizing tribal efforts for cultural heritage preservation and promotion.
- Promotes Indian values of valour, hospitality, and national pride among citizens.
PM JANMAN
About
- Pradhan Mantri Janjati Adivasi Nyaya Maha Abhiyan (PM-JANMAN) launched in 2023 for PVTG welfare.
- Launched on Janjatiya Gaurav Diwas ensuring last-mile welfare scheme delivery and protection.
Target Beneficiaries
- 75 PVTG communities located in 18 states and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
- PVTGs face vulnerability in social, economic, education sectors requiring targeted interventions.
Mission Structure
- Focuses on 11 critical interventions through 9 line Ministries uplifting tribal communities.
- Ministry of Tribal Affairs acts as nodal Ministry coordinating implementation efforts.
11 Key Interventions
- Housing: Provision of pucca houses for PVTG families ensuring permanent shelter.
- Infrastructure: Connecting roads, piped water supply, community water supply for basic amenities.
- Healthcare: Mobile medical units with medicine cost coverage for accessible healthcare services.
- Education: Construction of hostels, vocational education centres, anganwadi centres for skill development.
- Community facilities: Multipurpose centres (MPCs) for social and administrative activities.
- Energy: Household energization (last-mile connectivity), solar lighting in streets and MPCs.
- Livelihood: Setting up Van Dhan Vikas Kendras (VDVKs) for economic empowerment.
- Connectivity: Installation of mobile towers ensuring digital connectivity in remote areas.
Funding and Implementation
- Implemented as Centrally Sponsored Schemes in partnership with State Governments/UT Administrations.
- Also includes Central Sector Schemes through line Ministries/Departments for comprehensive coverage.
Wholesale Price Index (WPI)
News: Wholesale Price Index inflation fell to 27-month low of -1.21% in October 2025, driven by sharp deflation in food items, fuel, manufactured products.
Wholesale Price Index (WPI)
- WPI measures price changes of goods sold in bulk at the wholesale level.
- It tracks supply–demand dynamics in industry, manufacturing, and construction.
- Services are not included, as wholesale markets deal only with goods.
- Released monthly by the Office of Economic Adviser, Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
- Month-on-month rise in WPI indicates wholesale inflation.
- Calculation and Structure
- Based on wholesale prices of 697 commodities selected for economic relevance.
- Base Year: 2011–12.
- Represents multiple economic sectors to produce a comprehensive inflation measure.
- Major Components
- Primary Articles (22.62%) – includes food (cereals, milk, meat, pulses) and non-food articles (oilseeds, minerals, crude petroleum).
- Fuel & Power (13.15%) – petrol, diesel, and LPG.
- Manufactured Goods (64.23%) – textiles, chemicals, cement, metals, plastics, sugar, oils, fats, etc.
- Headline vs Core Inflation
- Headline inflation: price change of all WPI items.
- Core inflation: excludes food and fuel due to their volatility.
- Headline is more relevant for India, where these items form 30–40% of expenditure.
- WPI vs CPI
- WPI: tracks wholesale goods prices; excludes services.
- CPI: measures the retail price paid by households for goods and services.
Operation Southern Spear
Context
- The United States has launched Operation Southern Spear, a major maritime campaign targeting suspected drug traffickers in the Caribbean.
Recent Strike
- A Pentagon official confirmed a new US strike on a vessel allegedly involved in drug trafficking.
- Occurred in the Caribbean Sea, killing four individuals on board.
- Adds to a series of 20+ strikes since September.
- 21 vessels destroyed and over 80 people killed in international waters.
Objectives of Operation
- Announced by US Defence Secretary Pete Hegseth.
- Aims to dismantle “narco-terrorist networks” across the Caribbean basin.
- Intended to protect the US from drug flows threatening public health and national security.
- Involves expanded naval deployment, including the USS Gerald R. Ford, enhancing surveillance and strike capabilities.
Potential Expansion
- Reports indicate possible extension of operations to land-based targets in Venezuela.
- Updated strike options have been presented, but no final decision made.
- Reflects broader geopolitical tensions involving US–Venezuela relations.
Strategic & Legal Concerns
- Raises questions about the legality of cross-border actions under international law.
- Highlights debates on sovereignty, use of force, and militarised anti-narcotics operations.
- Suggests a shift towards a more aggressive US posture in the Caribbean security landscape.
Strait of Hormuz
About the Strait
- The Strait of Hormuz is a narrow maritime passage 55–95 km wide.
- It lies between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula, linking the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of Oman and Arabian Sea.
- It is one of the world’s most strategic chokepoints for energy transit.
Global Energy Importance
- Acts as a vital route for global oil and LNG shipments from Persian Gulf nations.
- Handles 20–25% of global oil supply, with ~20 million barrels per day passing through in 2024.
- Major exporters: Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, UAE, Qatar.
- Over 80% of oil shipped through the Strait goes to Asian markets—mainly India, China, Japan, South Korea.
India’s Strategic Dependence
- Approximately 40% of India’s crude oil imports transit the Strait.
- Nearly 54% of India’s LNG imports also pass through this chokepoint, making it vital for energy security.
Historical Flashpoints
- No complete blockade has occurred historically, but disruptions are frequent.
- During the Iran-Iraq “Tanker War” (1980–88), both sides attacked oil tankers in the region.
- In 2019, Iran seized a British tanker.
- Iran has repeatedly threatened closure during tensions in 2011–12 and post-2018 US sanctions.
Alternate Export Routes
- Saudi Arabia and the UAE operate pipelines bypassing the Strait.
- Iran exports via the Goreh–Jask pipeline and Jask terminal, directly accessing the Gulf of Oman.
AI-based Locking Monitoring System – ‘DRISHTI’
About DRISHTI
- DRISHTI is an AI-powered real-time Locking Monitoring System for freight wagons.
- Designed to track door-locking conditions and detect tampered or unlocked wagon doors during transit.
- Developed jointly by Northeast Frontier Railway (NFR) and IIT Guwahati – Technology Innovation and Development Foundation (IITG TIDF).
Aim
- To automate detection of open, unlocked, or tampered freight wagon doors.
- To reduce manual inspections, which are labour-intensive and inefficient for long-haul freight.
- To improve security, transparency, and reliability in freight movement.
Key Features
- Equipped with AI-powered cameras and sensors on wagon doors.
- Uses computer vision + machine learning algorithms to analyse door position and locking status.
- Generates real-time alerts for anomalies such as tampering, partial locking, or unexpected door movement.
- Enables automated anomaly detection without disrupting normal operations.
- Operates effectively under dynamic transit conditions using advanced analytics and imaging.
- Ten-month trial on selected wagons reported encouraging accuracy.
- Designed for scalable deployment across NFR and Indian Railways.
Significance
- Enhances cargo security by preventing theft, pilferage, and tampering.
- Reduces dependence on manual checking, improving operational efficiency.
- Ensures rolling stock integrity by maintaining sealed wagon conditions throughout transit.
- Strengthens trust in freight logistics and enables data-driven decision-making.
