Prelims Pinpointer 29-12-2025

Prelims Pinpointer

Krishna River System

About the River

• Krishna River is one of the major peninsular rivers of India, vital for irrigation and power.
• Originates in Western Ghats and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
• Total length is about 1,400 km, making it India’s fourth-longest river.
• Basin covers nearly 8% of India’s total geographical area.
• Around 75% of river water is utilised for agriculture and allied uses.
• The river records its highest discharge in Andhra Pradesh.

Origin and Course

• Originates near Jor village, Mahabaleshwar, Satara district, Maharashtra.
• Emerges from the Western Ghats at an elevation of about 1,300 metres.
• Flows eastwards through Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.
• Forms part of the Telangana–Andhra Pradesh boundary.
• Empties into the Bay of Bengal at Hamsaladeevi, Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh.

Right Bank Tributaries

• (Originate mainly from the Western Ghats; short, swift, water-rich)
• Tungabhadra River: Largest right-bank tributary; formed by Tunga–Bhadra confluence in Karnataka.
  • Provides extensive irrigation, hydropower, and supports major temple towns and fertile plains.
• Ghataprabha River: Originates near Gokak; known for waterfalls, irrigation, and wildlife sanctuaries.
• Malaprabha River: Rises near Khanapur; supports agriculture and historic centres like Kudalasangama.
• Koyna River: Hosts the Koyna Dam, one of India’s major hydroelectric projects.
• Panchganga River: Formed by five rivers; strengthens Krishna’s flow near Karad.
• Dudhganga River: Smaller tributary aiding local irrigation and power generation.

Left Bank Tributaries

• (Originate from the Deccan Plateau; longer courses, wider basins)
• Bhima River: Largest left-bank tributary; originates near Bhimashankar, Maharashtra.
  • Sustains agriculture across Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Telangana before joining Krishna.
• Musi River: Flows through Hyderabad; historically important but severely pollution-stressed.

Major Dams and Barrages

• Almatti Dam: Part of Upper Krishna Project, Karnataka.
• Srisailam Dam: Major hydropower and irrigation project.
• Nagarjuna Sagar Dam: Among world’s largest masonry dams.
• Prakasam Barrage: Supports Krishna delta irrigation near Vijayawada.

Significance

• Backbone of agriculture, irrigation, hydropower, and regional water security.
• Supports major urban and rural populations across four states.

Rare-Earth Elements

About REE

• Rare-earth elements (REEs) comprise 17 metallic elements in the periodic table.
• They include 15 lanthanides (lanthanum–lutetium) plus scandium and yttrium.
• Lanthanides appear as a separate row below the periodic table for convenience.
• Scandium and yttrium lie in Group 3, near transition metals.

Why Are They Called ‘Rare’?

• The term “earth” historically referred to oxide powders in early chemistry.
• REEs are not always scarce, but occur in low concentrations.
• They are usually mixed together in the same minerals, complicating separation.
• Extraction and purification are technically complex and energy-intensive.

Technological Importance of Rare-Earth Elements

• REEs possess unique magnetic, electrical, and optical properties.
• They are indispensable for high-performance permanent magnets.
• Neodymium-iron-boron magnets power motors and generators in green technologies.
• Europium and terbium are used in phosphors for lighting and displays.
• Neodymium and erbium act as dopants in lasers and fibre-optic systems.
• REEs are also used in catalysts, glass, ceramics, and polishing compounds.

Magnetic and Optical Advantages

• REE atoms have localized 4f electrons close to the nucleus.
• These electrons retain strong magnetic moments, enhancing magnet strength.
• Magnetocrystalline anisotropy ensures thermal and mechanical stability.
• This allows efficient operation of motors at high speeds and temperatures.
• Shielded 4f electrons emit sharp, stable light frequencies in phosphors.

Extraction and Processing Challenges

• Economically viable REE ores occur in limited geological pockets.
• Common host minerals include bastnäsite, monazite, and ion-adsorption clays.
• Mining is often open-pit, requiring large-scale rock excavation.
• Some ores contain thorium or uranium, creating radioactive waste risks.
• Processing involves beneficiation, chemical cracking, leaching, and solvent extraction.
• Separation is difficult because REE ions have similar size and charge.
• Solvent extraction requires multiple repetitive stages for high purity.

Strategic Significance and China’s Dominance

• REE refining is the most critical midstream bottleneck, not mining alone.
• China controls around 91% of global refining capacity.
• It also produces 94% of sintered rare-earth permanent magnets.
• Global reserves exceed 90 million tonnes, including significant deposits in India.
• Countries prioritise refining and magnet manufacturing capacity for green transitions.

Zero Defect, Zero Effect (ZED) Scheme

Overview

• ZED Scheme promotes quality manufacturing with minimal environmental impact among Indian MSMEs.
• It was launched in October 2016 and revamped in April 2022 for wider adoption.
• The scheme offers certification-based assessment to improve manufacturing competitiveness.
• It is implemented by the Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises.

Core Philosophy of ZED

• Zero Defect: Manufacture products with no defects, ensuring global quality standards.
• Zero Effect: Adopt processes causing minimal environmental damage.
• Emphasises sustainable, efficient, and responsible manufacturing practices.

Certification Structure

• ZED certification is provided under three graded levels.
• Bronze, Silver, and Gold certifications are awarded based on performance.
• Assessment is conducted across 20 performance-based parameters.
• Key parameters include quality management, process control, waste management, and delivery timelines.
• Certification validity is three years, requiring periodic re-application.

Objectives of the ZED Scheme

• Create awareness among MSMEs about quality and sustainable manufacturing.
• Motivate MSMEs to assess and improve enterprise-level manufacturing practices.
• Encourage continuous upgradation of product and process quality standards.
• Promote environmentally responsible manufacturing aligned with Zero Effect principles.
• Support the national Make in India manufacturing initiative.

Financial Assistance and Incentives

• Provides financial support up to 75% of certification cost.
• Maximum certification subsidy capped at ₹50,000 per MSME.
• Offers handholding and consultancy support up to ₹2 lakh for level upgradation.
• Provides technology upgradation assistance up to ₹3 lakh for pollution control and cleaner technologies.

Certification Fees and Special Provisions

• MSMEs pay ₹10,000 (Bronze), ₹40,000 (Silver), and ₹90,000 (Gold).
• From December 2023, ZED certification is free for women-led MSMEs.
• Government guarantees 100% financial support for certification costs.
• The scheme currently applies only to manufacturing MSMEs.

Discovery of Alaknanda Spiral Galaxy

 

• Indian astronomers discovered Alaknanda, the second farthest known spiral galaxy, using JWST observations.
• The discovery was unexpected, emerging during a broader study of early-universe galaxy morphologies.
• Findings were published in Astronomy & Astrophysics (November 2025).

Observation and Identification

• Discovery made by NCRA, Pune, analysing UNCOVER JWST survey data.
• UNCOVER survey contains nearly 70,000 celestial objects from the early universe.
• Alaknanda displayed two perfectly symmetric spiral arms, unusual for such an early epoch.

Structural Characteristics

• Detailed analysis confirmed a well-defined rotating disk, two spiral arms, and a small central bulge.
• Subtracting disk and bulge light preserved spiral arms, proving genuine structural features.
• New stars form along arms at a rate of ~60 solar masses per year.
• These features establish Alaknanda as a fully developed spiral galaxy.

Cosmological Significance

• Alaknanda formed when the universe was only ~1.5 billion years old.
• Existing galaxy-formation models predict spiral disks require several billion years to stabilise.
• The galaxy’s existence challenges prevailing simulations at redshift z ≈ 4.
• Redshift reflects cosmic expansion, measured through wavelength stretching of emitted light.

Possible Formation Mechanisms

• Cold gas accretion may have enabled steady disk growth and sustained density waves.
• Alternatively, interaction or merger with a smaller galaxy could have triggered spiral arms.

• Both mechanisms still appear too rapid under standard cosmological timelines.
• Presence of an unknown accelerating factor remains possible.

Methodology and Validation

• Study relied on photometric analysis, reconstructing energy distribution across wavelengths.
• Researchers estimated redshift, stellar mass, and star-formation history from brightness data.
• Three independent redshift measurements ensured result robustness.
• Experts recommend future spectroscopic verification to rule out chance alignments.

Future Observations

• Planned follow-up using JWST Integral Field Unit for structural confirmation.
• ALMA (Chile) observations proposed to study gas dynamics and formation processes.

Significance for Indian Astronomy

• Discovery highlights JWST data potential combined with meticulous analysis.
• India faces constraints from limited funding, training programmes, and workforce size.
• Strategy includes building domestic observatories and joining global collaborations.
• Participation in projects like SKA and LIGO aims to ensure sustained global scientific access.

Kavach System

Overview and Purpose

• Kavach is an indigenously developed Automatic Train Protection (ATP) system enhancing railway operational safety.
• It aims to prevent collisions, overspeeding, and unsafe train movements through automated interventions.
• The system operates on pre-programmed safety logic, reducing dependence on human response time.

Development and Collaboration

• Kavach was developed by Research Design and Standards Organisation (RDSO) under Indian Railways.
• Industry partners included Medha Servo Drives, HBL Power Systems, and Kernex Microsystems.
• Development reflects strong public–private collaboration in safety-critical railway technology.

System Architecture

• Kavach is a complex digital safety ecosystem integrating five major components.
• It includes continuous Optical Fibre Cable (OFC) along tracks for real-time data transmission.
• Telecom towers ensure uninterrupted communication between trains, stations, and control systems.
• Electronic devices and RFID units are installed on locomotives, tracks, and signalling infrastructure.
• Communication occurs through ultra-high radio frequencies, enabling rapid data exchange.

Operational Features

• The system alerts loco pilots in unsafe situations using visual and audio warnings.
• It can automatically apply brakes if corrective action is not taken.
• Kavach prevents signal passing at danger (SPAD) and unsafe train proximity.
• Field trials began in 2016, primarily on passenger train routes.

Deployment Status (December 2025)

• 7,129 km of Optical Fibre Cable laid across railway routes.
• 860 telecom towers installed to support continuous connectivity.
• 767 railway stations connected to centralized data centres.
• Trackside Kavach equipment deployed along 3,413 km.
• 4,154 locomotives equipped with onboard Kavach systems.

Human Capacity and Impact

• Around 40,000 technicians and operators trained to manage the system.
• Consequential railway accidents reduced by nearly 90% since 2014.
• Accident numbers declined from 135 incidents (2014) to around 11 currently, indicating strong safety outcomes.

Dulhasti Stage-II Hydropower Project

Background and Approval

• The Dulhasti Stage-II Hydropower Project recently received approval from a panel under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
• The project is planned on the Chenab River in Kishtwar district, Jammu and Kashmir.
• It represents a capacity expansion of an already operational hydropower facility in the region.

Project Capacity and Purpose

• Dulhasti Stage-II is designed as a 260-megawatt hydropower project.
• It is an extension of the existing Dulhasti Stage-I Hydroelectric Project.
• The Stage-I project has an installed capacity of 390 MW.
• Stage-I has been operational since 2007, indicating long-term performance stability.
• Both stages together enhance hydropower generation from the Chenab basin.

Implementing Agency

• The Dulhasti Stage-I project was commissioned by National Hydroelectric Power Corporation Limited (NHPC).
• Stage-II continues NHPC’s role in large hydropower development in Jammu and Kashmir.

Technical Design and Infrastructure

• Water for Stage-II will be diverted from the Stage-I power station.
• Diversion will occur through a separate tunnel measuring 3,685 metres in length.
• The tunnel will have a diameter of 8.5 metres.
• A horseshoe-shaped pondage will be created for Stage-II operations.
• The project includes a surge shaft and a pressure shaft.
• Power generation will occur in an underground powerhouse.

Power Generation Configuration

• The underground powerhouse will house two generating units.
• Each unit will have a capacity of 130 MW.
• The combined installed capacity will be 260 MW.
• The project is designed for annual energy generation from regulated flows.

Financial Aspects

• The total estimated project cost is more than ₹3,200 crore.
• Investment reflects the capital-intensive nature of hydropower projects.

PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana

Background and Launch

• PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana was launched on 15 February 2024 by the Government of India.
• The scheme aims to provide free electricity to households through rooftop solar installations.
• It promotes decentralised renewable energy generation at the household level.

Core Objective

• Reduce household electricity expenditure by enabling grid-connected rooftop solar systems.
• Support India’s transition towards clean energy and energy self-reliance.
• Encourage citizen participation in solar power generation.

Subsidy Structure

• Provides 60% subsidy on solar unit cost for systems up to 2 kW capacity.
• Offers 40% subsidy on additional system cost for capacity between 2 kW and 3 kW.
• Subsidy support is capped at 3 kW capacity per household.
• Financial assistance lowers the upfront installation cost for beneficiaries.

Key Components

• Installation of rooftop solar panels on eligible residential houses.
• Development of a Model Solar Village in every district of the country.
• Model Solar Villages aim to demonstrate community-level solar adoption.

Incentives to Local Bodies

• Incentive of ₹1,000 per rooftop solar installation is provided.
• Incentives are paid to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) and Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs).
• Gram Panchayats are encouraged to promote local-level solar deployment.

Implementation Framework

• Implemented by a National Programme Implementation Agency (NPIA) at the national level.
• State Implementation Agencies (SIAs) oversee execution at the state level.
• DISCOMs are designated as SIAs under the scheme.
• DISCOM responsibilities include net meter availability, inspection, and commissioning.
• DISCOMs receive performance-based incentives for rooftop solar capacity beyond baseline levels.

Eligibility Criteria

• Applicant household must be an Indian citizen.
• Beneficiary must own a house with a suitable rooftop for solar installation.
• A valid electricity connection is mandatory.
• Household must not have availed any other solar subsidy earlier.
  

Communist Party of India (CPI)

Background and Foundation

• Communist Party of India (CPI) is among India’s oldest political parties, rooted in Marxist ideology.
• Established on 26 December 1925 at Kanpur (Cawnpore) through a national Communist conference.
• An earlier émigré CPI was formed in Tashkent in 1920, remaining a historical debate.

Core Ideological Aims

• Liberation of India from British imperialism during the colonial period.
• Socialisation of means of production and distribution to end economic exploitation.
• Establishment of a socially just and egalitarian society based on class equality.

Early Phase: 1920s–1930s

• Strongly inspired by the Russian Revolution of 1917 and global Communist thought.
• Faced severe colonial repression through Kanpur and Meerut Conspiracy Cases.
• Operated largely underground, focusing on ideological consolidation.

Mass Mobilisation Phase: 1930s–1940s

• Expanded influence through trade unionism and peasant struggles.
• Played an active role in United Front politics with socialist forces.
• Led major agrarian movements such as Tebhaga Movement (Bengal) and Telangana Armed Struggle.

Post-Independence Trajectory

• After 1947, CPI largely embraced parliamentary democracy.
• Formed elected governments in Kerala, West Bengal, and Tripura.
• Balanced constitutional politics with mass-based mobilisation.

Ideological Split, 1964

• Major split in 1964 led to the formation of CPI (Marxist).
• Triggered by debates over constitutionalism and the Sino-Soviet split.

Prominent Leaders

• M. N. Roy: International Marxist theorist; linked to Comintern and Tashkent phase.
• S. A. Dange: Key organiser; central to Kanpur foundation.
• Muzaffar Ahmad: Pioneer of Communist movement in Bengal.
• P. C. Joshi: Early General Secretary; promoted united front politics.
• A. K. Gopalan, E. M. S. Namboodiripad: Influential post-Independence parliamentary leaders.

Key Characteristics

• Marxist ideological foundation emphasising class struggle and anti-imperialism.
• Mass-based politics with strong links to AITUC and peasant organisations.
• Dual strategy combining extra-parliamentary movements with electoral participation.
• Internationalist outlook, adapted to Indian socio-political conditions.
• Uneven federal presence, with influence concentrated in specific States.

Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission (IPC)

Context

• Union Health Minister reviewed IPC functioning and announced Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP) 2026 launch.
• 10th edition of IP is scheduled for release in January 2026.

What is the Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission (IPC)?

• Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission (IPC) is an autonomous national body for drug standards.
• It publishes the Indian Pharmacopoeia, the official book of drug quality standards in India.
• Standards ensure identity, purity, strength, quality, and safety of medicines.
• Operates under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940.

Establishment and Administration

• Operational since: 1 January 2009.
• Constituted as an autonomous institution, fully funded by the Government of India.
• Functions under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW).
• Headquarters: Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh.

Aims and Objectives

• Promote public and animal health through scientifically robust drug standards.
• Ensure authoritative national benchmarks for pharmaceuticals and related products.
• Support Atmanirbhar Bharat and Viksit Bharat via self-reliant regulation.
• Facilitate global harmonisation of Indian drug standards.

Key Functions

• Indian Pharmacopoeia publication: Periodic revision of drug monographs and standards.
• Covers APIs, excipients, dosage forms, medical devices, and herbal drugs.
• National Formulary of India (NFI): Guides rational and safe prescribing practices.
• Pharmacovigilance Programme of India (PvPI): National centre for adverse drug reaction monitoring.
• IP Reference Substances: Prepares and distributes certified reference standards.
• Global collaboration: Works with USP, BP, Ph. Eur., JP, ChP, and WHO-IP.
• Capacity building: Conducts training, research, and awareness on regulatory standards.

Significance

• Ensures uniform medicine quality, safety, and efficacy nationwide.
• Indian Pharmacopoeia recognised in 19 countries, enhancing regulatory credibility.
• Strengthens India’s role in global pharmaceutical supply chains and exports.

Shipbuilding Financial Assistance Scheme (SBFAS)

Context

• Ministry of Ports, Shipping & Waterways Ministry of Ports, Shipping & Waterways notified operational guidelines.
• Guidelines cover Shipbuilding Financial Assistance Scheme (SBFAS) and Shipbuilding Development Scheme (SbDS).

Objective

• Strengthen domestic shipbuilding capacity and enhance global competitiveness.
• Reduce cost disadvantages faced by Indian shipyards.

Timeframe and Administration

• Scheme valid up to March 31, 2036.
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Ports, Shipping & Waterways.

Key Features

• Financial assistance: Government support ranges between 15%–25% per vessel.
• Assistance varies according to vessel category and technological complexity.
• Graded support structure for small normal, large normal, and specialised vessels.
• Stage-wise disbursement linked to predefined construction milestones.
• Payments backed by security instruments to ensure accountability.

Shipbreaking Credit Note

• Ship owners scrapping vessels at Indian shipbreaking yards receive incentives.
• Credit note equals 40% of the vessel’s scrap value.
• Credit can be utilised for new shipbuilding orders within India.

Institutional Mechanism

• Establishment of a National Shipbuilding Mission.
• Ensures coordinated planning, monitoring, and execution of shipbuilding policies.

Shipbuilding Development Scheme (SbDS)

• Focus Area

• • • Emphasis on long-term capacity and capability creation.

• Infrastructure Development

• • Development of greenfield shipbuilding clusters.
  • Expansion and modernisation of existing brownfield shipyards.

• Technology and Skills

• • • India Ship Technology Centre to be set up under Indian Maritime University.
    • Supports research, ship design, innovation, and skills development.

• Funding Pattern

• • Greenfield clusters: 100% capital support for common infrastructure.
  • Funding through 50:50 Centre–State Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV).
  • Brownfield expansion: 25% capital assistance for infrastructure like dry docks and shiplifts.

• Risk Mitigation

• • Credit Risk Coverage Framework introduced.
  • Government-backed insurance for pre-shipment, post-shipment, and vendor-default risks.

Overall Significance

• Promotes Make in India in shipbuilding and maritime manufacturing.
• Strengthens India’s position in global shipping and maritime value chains.

Vallanadu Wildlife Sanctuary

Context

• Vallanadu Wildlife Sanctuary recorded a rise in blackbuck population.
• Recent census estimates around 300 blackbucks within the sanctuary.

About Vallanadu Wildlife Sanctuary

• Location and Extent

• • Located in Tamil Nadu, near the southern tip of the Eastern Ghats.
  • Spread across 16.41 square kilometres of protected area.

• Purpose of Establishment

• • Established primarily to protect the blackbuck antelope, a keystone grassland species.
  • Aimed at conserving dry scrub and grassland ecosystems.

• Vegetation Profile

• • Dominated by scrub forest vegetation, adapted to semi-arid climatic conditions.
  • Key plant species include Acacia, Albizia amara, Zizyphus species, Azadirachta indica, Carissa carandus, and Euphorbia acalypha.
  • Vegetation supports open habitats essential for grazing antelopes.

• Faunal Diversity

• • Mammals: Blackbuck, Spotted Deer, Bonnet Macaque, Jungle Cat, Small Indian Civet, Black-naped Hare.
  • Birds: Rose-ringed Parakeet and other scrub-forest avifauna.
  • Reptiles: Common Indian Monitor Lizard and associated dry-zone reptiles.

Blackbuck

• General Characteristics

• • A medium-sized antelope, endemic to the Indian subcontinent.
  • Exhibits strong sexual dimorphism, with males having spiral horns.

• Habitat Preference
  • Prefers open grasslands, dry scrub areas, and lightly forested landscapes.
  • Avoids dense forests due to visibility constraints.

• • Geographical Distribution

• Found across Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, and peninsular India.

• • Cultural and Legal Significance

• Declared State Animal of Punjab, Haryana, and Andhra Pradesh.

• • Conservation Status

• Listed as ‘Least Concern’ under the IUCN Red List.

• Ecological Significance of Population Rise
  • Indicates improved habitat quality and effective protection measures.
  • Reflects successful conservation of grassland-dependent species.
  • Highlights the importance of scrub ecosystems, often neglected in conservation planning.