Prelims Pinpointer 21-12-2025

Prelims 

Consumer Courts

Context: Consumer courts across India face severe delays with 5.43 lakh pending cases as of January 2024, undermining the speedy justice mandate under the Consumer Protection Act, 2019.

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• Section 38(7) of the Consumer Protection Act mandates complaint disposal within 3-5 months, but adjournments and backlogs cause years-long delays.
• In 2024, consumer commissions received 1.73 lakh fresh cases but disposed only 1.58 lakh, creating a net increase of 14,900 pending cases.
• Up to July 2025, 78,031 new complaints were filed while only 65,537 cases were disposed of, perpetuating the backlog crisis.
• As of August 2025, 18 President posts and 62 Member posts were vacant in State Consumer Commissions, severely impacting court functioning.
• At district level, 218 President posts and 518 Member posts remained vacant, contributing to mounting backlogs and delayed hearings nationwide.
• Litigants face repeated adjournments spanning months, requiring long-distance travel with no hearing assurance, turning courts into endurance tests for consumers.

Consumer Dispute Redressal Machinery

• The Consumer Protection Act, 2019 establishes a three-tier quasi-judicial consumer redressal system.
• It provides exclusive alternative dispute resolution for consumer grievances.
• Forums operate at District, State and National levels.

Three-Tier Consumer Redressal Structure

• District Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission
• Established by State Governments in each district.
• More than one District Commission may be created within a district.
• Ordinarily functions at district headquarters, with notified additional locations.
• Composition
• President + minimum 2 members, as prescribed in consultation with the Centre.

Appointment and Service Conditions

• Central Government frames rules for qualifications and appointment procedures.
• State Government determines salaries, allowances and service conditions.

Jurisdiction

• Complaints where consideration does not exceed ₹1 crore.
• Revised limit (2021): up to ₹50 lakh.

Powers

• Power to review its own orders within 30 days for apparent errors.
• Temporary jurisdiction adjustments allowed during vacancies.

State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission

• Established by State Governments, ordinarily functioning at state capitals.
• Can operate at other notified locations within the State.

Composition

• President + at least 4 members, as prescribed with Central Government consultation.

Jurisdiction

• • • • Complaints where consideration exceeds ₹1 crore but does not exceed ₹10 crores.
      • Revised limit (2021): above ₹50 lakh and up to ₹2 crores.

Appellate Powers

• • • • Hears appeals against District Commission orders within 45 days.
      • Delay condoned upon sufficient cause.

Revisional Powers

• Can intervene where District Commission exceeded, failed, or misused jurisdiction.

Administrative Control

• Exercises administrative supervision over District Commissions.

National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (NCDRC)

• • • Establishment and Nature
      • Established by the Central Government.
      • Ordinarily functions in National Capital Region, with regional branches permitted.
    • Composition
      • President + 4 to 11 members (2020 rules).
      • At least one woman member mandatory.
    • Appointment and Tenure
      • Appointed by Centre on Search-cum-Selection Committee recommendations.
      • Committee chaired by CJI or nominee Supreme Court Judge.
      • Tenure: 4 years or age 70 (President) / 67 (Members).
    • Jurisdiction
      • Pecuniary: Above ₹10 crores under 2019 Act.
      • Revised limit (2021): above ₹2 crores.
    • Appellate Jurisdiction
      • Appeals against State Commission and Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) orders.
      • Appeal period: 30 days, extendable on sufficient cause.

Revisional Jurisdiction

• Supervises State Commissions for jurisdictional errors or irregularities.

• Additional Powers

• • • • Declare unfair contractual terms null and void.
      • Review orders and set aside ex-parte decisions.
      • Transfer cases across States when required.

Appeal

• Final appeal lies with the Supreme Court within 30 days.

Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA)

• Established under Section 10 of the Act, effective from 24 July 2020.
• Regulates consumer rights violations, unfair trade practices, and misleading advertisements.
• Headed by a Chief Commissioner with other Commissioners.
• Headquartered in NCR Delhi, with regional offices permitted.

Pecuniary Jurisdiction Comparison

• District Commission: Up to ₹50 lakh (2021).
• State Commission: ₹50 lakh–₹2 crore (2021).
• National Commission: Above ₹2 crore (2021).

Significance

• Ensures speedy, decentralised and consumer-friendly justice delivery.
• Strengthens institutional accountability and uniform consumer protection nationwide.

Candida auris (C. auris)

Context

• Scientists recently identified a genetic process that may improve treatment strategies against Candida auris.
• The pathogen is emerging as a global public health threat, especially in healthcare settings.

What is Candida auris?

• Candida auris is a fungal pathogen known for multi-drug resistance.
• It can survive on human skin, inside the body, and in hospital environments.
• It is capable of causing severe invasive infections in humans.
• First identified in Japan in 2009, it has since spread globally.

Diseases Caused

• Causes bloodstream infections, often associated with high fatality rates.
• Can lead to meningitis, bone infections, and burn or wound infections.
• Also associated with urinary tract infections, especially in hospitalised patients.

Mode of Transmission

• Primarily reported from hospitals and nursing homes.
• Spreads through contact with contaminated surfaces or person-to-person transmission.
• Patients with recent hospitalisation, invasive devices, or existing illnesses are at higher risk.

How the Fungus Affects the Body

• Asymptomatic colonisation: Lives on skin, mouth, or rectum without symptoms but spreads easily.
• Invasive infection: Enters bloodstream or wounds, causing life-threatening illness.

Symptoms

• Symptoms closely resemble other infections, making diagnosis difficult.
• Common signs include persistent fever and chills unresponsive to antibiotics.

Mortality Rate

• Estimated mortality ranges between 30% and 60%, depending on severity and treatment delay.

Treatment and Challenges

• First-line treatment involves echinocandin antifungal drugs.
• Some strains show resistance to all major antifungal classes.
• In resistant cases, high-dose combination antifungal therapy may be required.

Significance for Public Health

• Highlights growing challenge of antimicrobial resistance.
• Requires strict infection control, surveillance, and early detection in healthcare facilities.
• Ongoing research is crucial to develop new therapeutic strategies against resistant fungal pathogens.

Kavachi Volcano

Context

• Scientists recently recorded rare footage of sharks living inside the Kavachi volcano.
• The discovery challenges assumptions about marine survival in extreme volcanic environments.

Location and Setting

• Kavachi is a shallow submarine volcano located in the South Pacific Ocean.
• It lies south of Vangunu Island, part of the Solomon Islands.
• The volcano is situated along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a highly tectonically active belt.

Geological Significance

• Kavachi is among the world’s few active and visible undersea volcanoes.
• Its eruptions are frequent but highly unpredictable.
• The volcano has shown recurrent eruptive activity since 1939, when it was first documented.

Eruptive Characteristics

• Eruptions typically generate:
  • Steam plumes rising above sea level.
  • Ash and lava emissions.
  • Discolouration of surrounding seawater due to volcanic gases.
• Periodic eruptions have led to the temporary formation of volcanic islands.

Island Formation and Erosion

• Newly formed islands are:

• • Small in size.
  • Often coated with solidified lava flows.
• These islands are short-lived, as they fail to withstand strong wave erosion.
• Consequently, the islands usually submerge again within short periods.

Ecological Importance

• The presence of sharks inside an active submarine volcano highlights ecological resilience.
• It indicates that marine organisms can adapt to extreme conditions, including:
  • Elevated temperatures.
  • Volcanic gases.
  • Acidic waters.
• This finding expands understanding of life in extreme environments, relevant for marine biology and astrobiology.

Udanti Sitanadi Tiger Reserve

• Context

• • Forest authorities arrested 53 persons for attempting encroachment inside Udanti Sitanadi Tiger Reserve.
  • Incident highlights pressure on protected forest land in central India.

• Location and Establishment

• • Located in Chhattisgarh, forming part of the central Indian forest landscape.
  • Created by integrating Udanti Wildlife Sanctuary and Sitanadi Wildlife Sanctuary.
  • Notified as a Tiger Reserve to strengthen wildlife conservation.

• Area and Physiography

• • Covers approximately 1,842 sq. km, making it one of the larger reserves in the region.
  • Contains 19 named hills and mountains.
  • Deo Dongri is the highest peak, while Atānga Dongar is the most prominent mountain.

• Drainage System

• • Part of the Mahanadi river basin.
  • Major rivers include Mahanadi, with tributaries Udanti, Sitanadi, Indravan, and Pairi.
  • River systems support forest ecology and wildlife habitats.

• Ecological Connectivity

• • Strategically located to connect Kanker and North Kondagaon forest divisions.
  • Forms a contiguous forest corridor linking to Indravati Tiger Reserve in Bastar.
  • Enhances gene flow and wildlife movement, crucial for tiger conservation.

• Flora

• • Dominated by tropical dry and moist deciduous forests.
  • Sal (Shorea robusta) forms dense and extensive patches.
  • Other key species include Teak, Bamboo, Tendu, Mahua, Bija, and Harra.
  • High plant diversity supports rich faunal assemblages.

• Fauna

• • Along with Indravati, serves as a critical refuge for endangered Wild Buffalo.
  • Supports tiger populations and associated prey base.
  • Other notable species include Indian Wolf, Leopard, Sloth Bear, and Mouse Deer.
  • Presence of rare fauna increases the reserve’s conservation value.

• Significance

• • Important for tiger conservation, wild buffalo survival, and landscape-level connectivity.
  • Encroachment incidents underline the need for strict protection and enforcement.

Dark Eagle Hypersonic Missile System

Context

• The U.S. Army and Navy completed integrated testing of the Dark Eagle LRHW.
• Testing marks progress in operationalising U.S. hypersonic strike capability.

About Dark Eagle LRHW

• A non-nuclear, ground-launched hypersonic missile system of the United States Army.
• Designed for long-range strategic precision strike missions.
• Missile development led by Lockheed Martin and Northrop Grumman.
• Intended to counter Anti-Access/Area Denial (A2/AD) environments.

Operational Role

• Penetrates advanced air and missile defence systems.
• Suppresses long-range enemy fires with rapid response capability.
• Enables time-critical strikes across contested theatres.

Key Technical Features

• Maximum range: Up to 2,735 km, enabling deep-strike operations.
• Platform: Mobile, land-based missile battery.
• Launch system: Four Transporter Erector Launchers (TELs) per battery.
• Missile load: Each TEL carries two missiles, total eight missiles per battery.
• Propulsion: Solid-fuelled, two-stage rocket booster.
• Warhead: Common Hypersonic Glide Body (C-HGB).

Hypersonic Glide Capability

• Glide vehicle is unpowered but highly manoeuvrable.
• Achieves speeds up to Mach 17, complicating interception.
• Missile ascends to near-space altitudes before atmospheric glide.
• Flies outside reach of most conventional air defence systems.

Strategic Significance

• Strengthens U.S. conventional deterrence without nuclear escalation.
• Enhances joint Army–Navy hypersonic strike integration.
• Reflects growing global focus on hypersonic weapons competition.

Autophagy

Context

• Recent research identified a new regulatory player in autophagy, opening avenues for disease therapies.

What is Autophagy?

• Autophagy is a fundamental cellular process that removes damaged and unnecessary cellular components.
• It functions as the cell’s internal recycling mechanism, maintaining cellular balance.
• Cells break down defective organelles and reuse components for new cell structures.
• Particularly vital for long-lived cells like neurons, which cannot easily regenerate.

Mechanism and Function

• The autophagy pathway clears damaged proteins, organelles, and cellular debris.
• It also helps defend cells against intracellular infections.
• Failure of waste clearance leads to cellular dysfunction and degeneration.

Importance of Autophagy

• Converts damaged cellular material into functional cellular components.
• Removes non-functional structures that impair cellular efficiency.
• Eliminates intracellular pathogens such as bacteria and viruses.
• Plays a key role in aging processes and longevity regulation.

Autophagy and Diseases

• Disruption of autophagy is linked to Alzheimer’s and Huntington’s diseases.
• Impaired autophagy worsens neurodegeneration due to waste accumulation.
• In cancer, autophagy shows a dual role:
  • Initially acts as a tumour suppressor by preserving genomic stability.
  • Later, cancer cells exploit autophagy to survive stress and sustain growth.

Tundra Ecosystem

Context

• A recent Arctic Alaska study shows wildfires in tundra regions are the most active in 3,000 years.

What is the Tundra Ecosystem?

• The tundra is a treeless biome found in polar regions and high mountain tops.
• It experiences extremely cold, windy conditions with very low rainfall.

Key Characteristics

• Low temperatures: Average ranges between –34°C and –6°C.
• Short growing season: Only 50–60 days, with continuous summer daylight.
• Permafrost: Permanently frozen subsurface soil restricting root growth.
• Low precipitation: Minimal moisture, mostly in the form of snow.
• Limited biodiversity: Harsh climate supports fewer species.
• Major carbon sink: Slow decomposition allows long-term carbon storage.

Types of Tundra

• Arctic tundra: Located north of the taiga in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Alpine tundra: Found above tree lines in global mountain ranges.
• Antarctic tundra: Present on sub-Antarctic islands and parts of Antarctica.

Flora and Fauna

• Flora: Mosses, lichens, sedges, cotton grass, birches.

Fauna: Arctic foxes, snow geese, polar bears.