PRELIMS
ENEMY PROPERTY
RECENT CASE: Bollywood actor Saif Ali Khan is facing the prospect of losing ancestral properties in Bhopal worth approximately ₹15,000 crore. These have been classified as enemy properties under the Enemy Property Act, because his ancestor migrated to Pakistan after Partition.
Act Name: Enemy Property Act, 1968
Definition: Property (movable or immovable) held by or on behalf of an enemy, enemy subject, or enemy firm.
Who is an Enemy?
- Citizens or firms of countries that committed aggression against India—Pakistan and China.
- Applies to properties left behind during conflicts of 1962, 1965, and 1971.
Formulated Under: Defence of India Act, 1962
Authority: Custodian of Enemy Property for India under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
- Responsible for managing and safeguarding enemy properties.
Tashkent Declaration (1966): Discussion on returning properties, but Pakistan sold Indian assets in 1971.
Amendments – 2017 :Enemy Property (Amendment and Validation) Act, 2017:
- Expanded definitions of enemy subject and enemy firm.
Enemy Subject includes:
- Legal heirs of enemy nationals, even if Indian citizens.
- Nationals of enemy countries who later adopted other citizenships.
Enemy Firm: Property remains enemy property even if firm/person dies or closes business.
- Applies regardless of the legal heir’s nationality.
Inheritance Rule: No inheritance or transfer allowed once property is vested in the Custodian.
Disposal Mechanism:Recommendations by the Enemy Property Disposal Committee.
- Sales governed by Guidelines for Disposal of Enemy Property, 2018.
Revenue Use: Proceeds from sales deposited in the Consolidated Fund of India.
DARK WEB
WHY IN NEWS: A Kerala-based engineer was arrested by NCB for allegedly running a Level-4 darknet drug operation, possessing LSD, ketamine, and ₹1 crore worth of crypto assets.
Definition:
- The Dark Web is a part of the Deep Web that is intentionally hidden and not indexed by standard search engines.
- Requires special software like Tor (The Onion Router) for access.
Purpose:
- Designed to ensure anonymity and privacy of users.
- Can be used for both legal and illegal purposes.
Origin:
- Developed in the 1990s by the US Naval Research Laboratory to secure military and government communications.
Legal & Ethical Uses:
- Used by whistleblowers, journalists, activists, and political dissidents to securely share or access sensitive information.
- Helps users in authoritarian regimes access uncensored information.
Illegal Uses:
- Commonly used for drug trade, weapons, stolen data, child pornography, and illegal services (e.g., hacking).
- Attracts cybercriminals due to anonymity.
Difference: Dark Web vs Deep Web:
Deep Web: Legitimate hidden content (e.g., bank data, subscription sites, academic databases).
Dark Web: A small part of the Deep Web, accessible only via special tools and mostly used for anonymous activities.
Concerns for India:
- Increasing drug trafficking, arms sales, and illegal pornography through the dark web.
- Challenges for law enforcement due to encryption and anonymity.
CREDIT RATING AGENCIES
WHY IN NEWS: Sebi Mulls Allowing CRAs to Rate Financial Instruments Beyond Its Regulatory Purview.
Definition: A Credit Rating is a CRA’s opinion on the probability of timely repayment of debt and the likelihood of default on interest or principal.
Regulation: Credit Rating Agencies are governed by the SEBI (CRA) Regulations, 1999.
What is a CRA? A Credit Rating Agency (CRA) is a corporate body that is engaged in or proposes to rate securities (listed or to be listed) on a SEBI-recognized stock exchange.
Number of CRAs Registered with SEBI (as of 2025): 7 CRAs, including:
- CRISIL (Credit Rating Information Services of India Ltd)
- ICRA (Investment Information and Credit Rating Agency)
- CARE Ratings (Credit Analysis and Research Ltd)
- (Ind-Ra)
- Brickwork Ratings
- Acuité Ratings & Research
- Infomerics Valuation and Rating Pvt. Ltd
What is sovereign credit rating?
- An independent assessment of the creditworthiness of a country or sovereign entity.
BIOSPHERE RESERVES OF INDIA
- Biosphere reserves are sites established by countries and recognized under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programmeto promote sustainable development based on local community efforts and sound science.
18 Biosphere Reserves in India (12 Recognized by UNESCO’s MAB)
- 12 are included in UNESCO’s MAB World Network, which are listed as follows:
- Nilgiri (2000)
- Gulf of Mannar (2001)
- Sunderban (2001)
- Nanda Devi (2004)
- Nokrek (2009)
- Pachmarhi (2009)
- Similipal (2009)
- Achanakmar-Amarkantak (2012)
- Great Nicobar (2013)
- Agasthyamala (2016)
- Khangchendzonga, Sikkim (2018), and
- Panna, Madhya Pradesh (2020)
