Ammonia (NH₃)
In News: Ammonia Gas Leak in Tamil Nadu
- An ammonia gas leak at Peter and Paul Seafood Exports Pvt. Ltd. in Tiruvallur district, Tamil Nadu killed two migrant workers from Odisha.
- Over 60 people were hospitalised, with 23 admitted to the ICU.
- The company lacked a suitable alarm system, fire hydrant, and Form 12 register for the Employee State Insurance (ESI) scheme.
About Ammonia (NH₃)
- Ammonia is a colourless gas with a pungent odour, widely used in industry.
- It occurs naturally in the environment and the human body.
Production: Haber-Bosch Process
- Ammonia is produced by the Haber-Bosch process: N₂ + 3H₂ → 2NH₃.
- The reaction occurs at high temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst.
Properties: Solubility, Corrosiveness and Storage
- Ammonia is highly soluble in water and forms ammonium hydroxide on contact with water.
- Its concentrated form is corrosive and can cause burns or explosions at high temperatures.
- It is stored as a compressed liquid.
Significance: Green Ammonia as Energy Carrier
- Ammonia has 9 times higher energy density than Li-ion batteries.
- It also has 3 times higher energy density than compressed hydrogen.
- This makes it a promising carbon-free energy carrier for the future.
Source: The Hindu
Further Investigation and Section 173(8) CrPC
In News
- The Supreme Court in Paliniswamy Veeraraja vs State of Karnataka reiterated that Magistrate’s permission is mandatory before initiating further investigation after filing a closure report.
- The court quashed the FIR and chargesheet as no permission order was on record.
- The court also relied on State of Haryana vs Bhajan Lal (1992), holding the civil nature of the dispute as an additional ground for quashing.
About Further Investigation and Supplementary Report
- Section 173(2) CrPC provides for forwarding a final report to the Magistrate after completing investigation.
- Section 173(8) CrPC allows the police station in-charge to send a supplementary report if additional evidence is found after the final report.
- Section 173(8) is silent on requiring Magistrate’s permission for filing a supplementary report.
- Section 193(9) of BNSS is pari materia (dealing with the same subject matter) to Section 173(8) CrPC.
Law: Section 173(8) CrPC and BNSS Section 193(9)
- The proviso to Section 193(9) of BNSS mandates court permission if the trial has already begun.
- Even when statute does not require express permission, the Supreme Court in Rama Chaudhary vs State of Bihar (2024) held that seeking Magistrate’s permission is essential.
Case Law: Vinay Tyagi and Bhajan Lal Cases
- In Vinay Tyagi vs Irshad Ali (2013), the Supreme Court held that prior leave of the court must be read into Section 173(8), even though not expressly stated.
- The court applied the doctrine of contemporanea expositio, recognising that a consistently followed legal practice backed by law becomes an integral part of interpretation.
- In Robert Lalchungnunga Chongthu vs State of Bihar (2025), the Supreme Court reaffirmed the Vinay Tyagi ratio, holding that court’s leave for supplementary chargesheet is an integral part of the law.
- In State of Haryana vs Bhajan Lal (1992), the Supreme Court laid down principles for quashing FIRs, including when the dispute is civil in nature.
Principle: Magistrate’s Permission is Mandatory
- Once a chargesheet or closure report is filed, further investigation based on new evidence requires Magistrate’s permission.
- This principle applies regardless of whether the statute expressly states the requirement.
Source: The Hindu
Project Nimbus: Cloud Contract and Protests
In News
- Over 100 students disrupted Google CEO Sundar Pichai’s speech at Stanford on June 14, protesting against Project Nimbus.
- Students raised concerns about Google’s tech contract with Israel being linked to violence against Palestinian civilians.
About Project Nimbus
- Project Nimbus is a technology contract between Israel and Google and Amazon, worth over $1 billion.
- In May 2021, Google announced the agreement would deliver cloud services to Israeli government entities, including ministries and government-owned companies.
- The project was scheduled for an initial period of seven years, with possible extension up to 23 years.
- Amazon Web Services (AWS) was selected as Israel’s primary cloud provider under the Nimbus contract.
- A 2024 investigation by +972 Magazine and Local Call found that Israel’s army stored Palestinian surveillance data on AWS servers.
- Israeli service demands from Google Cloud, AWS, and Microsoft Azure increased significantly after October 2023.
Companies: Google, Amazon AWS and Microsoft Azure
- Reports alleged Israel Defense Forces (IDF) used Microsoft Azure to store Palestinians’ recorded phone call data for potential mass surveillance.
- Google has maintained that Project Nimbus workloads are not related to the military, weapons, or classified intelligence.
Source: The Hindu
Biochar: Turning Farm Waste into ‘Black Gold’
In News
- Indian researchers are promoting biochar as a solution to farm residue burning and soil degradation.
- Punjab and Haryana burn over 20 million tonnes of paddy straw every year, causing serious air pollution.
About Biochar
- Biochar is a carbon-rich material made by heating agricultural waste in low-oxygen conditions.
- It breaks down very slowly in soil, keeping carbon locked away for long periods.
- Biochar is highly porous and helps aggregate soil particles, hold water, and support beneficial microorganisms.
- It is considered a carbon-negative solution to both residue burning and soil degradation.
Process: Pyrolysis and Carbon Sequestration
- Biochar is produced through pyrolysis, which is heating organic matter in low-oxygen conditions.
- It can be classified as a persistent carbon dioxide removal technology under internationally accepted accounting standards.
- The VM0042 agricultural land management methodology quantifies avoided emissions from residue burning and long-term carbon sequestration.
- Each tonne of certified biochar can generate 2 to 2.8 tonnes of CO₂-equivalent in carbon credits.
- The KISAN kiln from IIT-Kharagpur allows smallholders to monetise farm waste through biochar production.
Benefits: Soil Health and Crop Productivity
- Biochar can improve crop productivity by 10% to 30% and water-holding capacity by 10% to 25%, especially in nutrient-poor soils.
- Biochar from maize stalks applied to black soils in Akola, Maharashtra improved soil organic carbon and soil fertility.
- Biochar from coconut leaf stalks in Kerala increased soil quality across different cropping systems.
- Long-term studies show biochar enhances soil health and maintains higher crop output over time.
- It is particularly important for small and marginal farmers vulnerable to climate variability.
Economy: Carbon Credits and Circular Economy
- India generates around 62 million tonnes of municipal solid waste per year, with over 50% biodegradable, which can serve as biochar feedstock.
- Sewage sludge and crop residues can also be converted into biochar, supporting the circular economy.
- In Kenya, biochar from rice husks produced certified carbon credits and improved soil pH and phosphorus content.
- Thailand tied biochar certification to the national carbon registry system, creating a policy-to-market pipeline.
- Brazil’s Embrapa Institute reported high carbon retention and large yield gains using sugarcane bagasse biochar.
Source: The Hindu
PMKVY and NSDC Crackdown
In News
- The National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) sent show cause notices to around 20 serving and former employees over alleged irregularities flagged by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG).
About PMKVY
- Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) is a skill development and certification scheme launched in July 2015.
- It is implemented by NSDC on behalf of the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE).
- The scheme has imparted skills training to over 1.64 crore youth till June 2025.
- It targets youth aged 15 to 29 years, with special focus on school dropouts and unemployed individuals.
- Skills already learned by individuals are certified under Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) Programmes.
Phases: PMKVY 1.0 to 4.0
- PMKVY 1.0 (2015): Aimed to train about 50 million youth by 2020.
- PMKVY 2.0 (2016): Focused on training and certifying 10 million youth by 2020, targeting school dropouts and linked to Make in India, Digital India, and Swachh Bharat.
- PMKVY 3.0: Aimed to train and certify 15 to 20 million youth by 2022, including new-age skills like BI, robotics, and 3D printing. Introduced the Kaushal Daksha Portal for a skilled workers database.
- PMKVY 4.0: Is currently ongoing.
Implementation: NSDC, MSDE and Sector Skill Councils
- The National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) is responsible for putting the training plan into action.
- Sector Skill Councils oversee skill execution at the ground level.
- Training partners can register on the SMART website to affiliate for skill training.
- Rozgar Melas provide youth with placement exposure after skill training.
Source: Indian Express
Rakhigarhi and Harappan Civilisation
In News
- The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) sent nearly 5,000-year-old skeletons from Rakhigarhi for DNA tests and facial reconstruction.
- Four skeletons were sent to the Anthropological Survey of India (AnSI), Kolkata and DNA samples to the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences (BSIP), Lucknow.
- Three of the five skeletons are believed to be female and two male, all aged between 30 and 40 years.
- Three additional burials were recovered from Mound No. 7, the ancient cemetery area, but contained only fragmentary remains.
- The study aims to determine cause of death, ancestry, height, physical features, and social status of the individuals.
- Facial reconstruction will provide a visual representation of Harappan inhabitants.
About Rakhigarhi
- Rakhigarhi is located in Hisar district, Haryana, about 150 km northwest of Delhi, in the Ghaggar-Hakra River plain.
- It is the largest known site of the Harappan (Indus Valley) Civilisation.
- The site was excavated by Amarendra Nath of ASI.
- It comprises two villages, Rakhi Shahpur and Rakhi Khas, spread across nine mounds.
- Mounds four and five are the most thickly populated.
- It belonged to the mature phase of the Indus Valley Civilisation (2600 to 1900 BCE).
- Three layers representing Early, Mature, and Late stages of IVC have been discovered here.
Major Findings at Rakhigarhi
- DNA Analysis:
- DNA analysis revealed that Harappan inhabitants had a distinct origin, negating the theory of steppe pastoral or ancient Iranian farmer ancestry.
- Town Planning:
- Townships had mud and burnt brick homes with efficient drainage and sanitation systems.
- Mound No. 3 revealed an aristocratic settlement with burnt and mud-brick walls.
- Lapidary:
- Large numbers of steatite beads, semi-precious stones, shells, agate, and carnelian objects were recovered, indicating flourishing trade.
- Various hunting tools including fish hooks were also excavated.
- Granary:
- The granary was made of mud bricks with a rammed earth plastered floor, enclosed within seven rectangular or square chambers.
- Traces of lime and decomposed grains suggest it was possibly publicly or privately elite-owned.
- Rituals and Burials:
- Fire altars on mudflows and traces of animal sacrifices covered with mud walls and triangular fire altars were found.
- Two 5,000-year-old female skeletons were discovered at Mound No. 7 along with pots and artefacts, indicating funerary rituals.
- Pottery and Seals:
- A seal with an alligator symbol was found, with five Harappan letters on one side.
- Artefacts included blades, shell bracelets, stone beads, animal figurines, and copper artefacts.
- Redware ceramics included dishes-on-stands, vases, jars, bowls, beakers, and goblets.
Source: Indian Express
