PRELIMS
Mushroom Species
Why in News: A new edible mushroom, Lactifluus khasianus, discovered in the East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya.
Key Facts
- Local name: Tit iongnah (used by Khasi tribes for decades).
- Researchers: Botanical Survey of India (Eastern Regional Centre), St. Xavier’s College (Dumka), Mahidol University (Thailand).
- Methods: Field survey, microscopic study, DNA sequencing.
- Genus: Lactifluus (milkcap), section Gerardii.
- Features: Chocolate-brown cap, larger cystidia; grows symbiotically with Khasi pine trees at ~1,600 m altitude.
Indigenous Knowledge
- Consumed as seasonal food, sold in local markets.
- Source of protein and micronutrients in tribal diet.
Significance
- First confirmed edible species in this section from India; fifth overall.
- Expands India’s fungal biodiversity (34 Lactifluus species).
- Meghalaya → Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot.
- Promotes conservation, sustainable use, and links indigenous wisdom with science.
Sawalkote Dam Project
Why in News: India revived the Sawalkote Hydropower Project (1,865 MW) on the Chenab River, J&K, after suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) in 2025.
Static Info
- River: Chenab – a major tributary of the Indus, originates from Bara Lacha Pass (HP), flows through J&K into Pakistan.
- Indus Waters Treaty (1960): Western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) reserved largely for Pakistan; India allowed only non-consumptive use (hydropower, irrigation with limits).
- Agency: NHPC implementing agency.
- Type: Concrete gravity dam; among largest planned hydro projects on a western river.
Current Context
- Declared a strategic priority post-Pahalgam terror attack (2025).
- Clearances: Forest Advisory Committee exempted from Cumulative Impact Assessment (CIA) & Carrying Capacity Studies (CCS) → faster clearance.
- Reflects a shift in India’s Indus water diplomacy after suspending IWT obligations.
Significance
- Enhances energy security and hydropower capacity in J&K.
- Strengthens India’s leverage on western rivers.
Concerns
- Environmental: Large reservoir, deforestation, stress on Chenab ecosystem (other projects: Salal, Dulhasti, Baglihar).
- Geopolitical: Could escalate India–Pakistan water disputes further.
L-1 Visa vs H-1B Visa
Why in News: US imposed $100,000 fee on new H-1B applications → firms exploring L-1 visa as alternative.
L-1 Visa
- Type: Non-immigrant work visa.
- Eligibility: Employee of MNC’s parent/branch/subsidiary/affiliate for ≥1 year in past 3 years.
- Categories:
- L-1A: Executive/managerial roles (valid up to 7 yrs).
- L-1B: Specialized knowledge roles (valid up to 5 yrs).
- Features:
- No lottery; year-round applications.
- No cap on visas.
- Spouse can work in US.
- Limitations:
- Restricted to intra-company transfers.
- High rejection rates (esp. L-1B) due to vague “specialized knowledge”.
- Requires prior one-year work abroad.
H-1B Visa
- Type: Non-immigrant work visa.
- Eligibility: Professionals with at least a bachelor’s degree in specialty occupations.
- Cap: 85,000 new visas annually.
- Validity: Up to 6 yrs.
- Features:
- Lottery-based selection.
- Pathway to green card.
- Broader scope (not limited to intra-company).
Comparison
H-1B: Wider scope, capped, lottery, pathway to permanent residency.
L-1: No cap, no lottery, but limited to intra-company transfers and higher rejection rates.
Conclusion: L-1 cannot fully substitute H-1B; mainly benefits multinational transfers.
Mount Lewotobi Laki-Laki
Why in News:Indonesia’s Mount Lewotobi Laki-Laki erupted, sending an ash cloud 18 km high.
Key Facts
- Location: Flores Island, Indonesia.
- Type: Active stratovolcano.
- System: Part of twin-peaked Lewotobi volcano (“husband & wife”):
- Lewotobi Laki-Laki (male) and Lewotobi Perempuan (female).
- Summits <2 km apart.
Impacts:
- Pyroclastic flows up to 5 km down slopes.
- Villages covered in volcanic ash.
- Exclusion zone expanded to 7 km; alert status raised to maximum.
Static Information
- Pacific Ring of Fire: Horseshoe-shaped seismic belt in Pacific Ocean, contains ~75% of world’s active volcanoes & 90% of earthquakes.
- Stratovolcanoes: Tall, conical, layered volcanoes (lava, ash, pumice); known for explosive eruptions.
Indonesia:
- Has 130+ active volcanoes (highest in the world).
- Lies on the Sunda Arc, where Indo-Australian Plate subducts beneath Eurasian Plate.
- Mount Merapi (Java): Indonesia’s most active volcano; erupted in 2010, causing widespread devastation.
NATO
Why in News: NATO warned Russia to stop “escalatory” airspace violations over Estonia and Norway (2025). Norway reported 3 violations in 2025 (SU-24, L410, SU-33 aircraft).
- NATO pledged to use “all necessary military & non-military tools” to deter threats on its eastern flank.
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization):
- Founded: 1949 (Washington Treaty).
- Headquarters: Brussels, Belgium.
- Members: 32 (latest – Finland 2023, Sweden 2024).
- Key Principle: Article 5 – collective defence (“an attack on one is an attack on all”).
Eastern Flank Countries:
- NATO states bordering Russia/Belarus: Poland, Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Romania, Finland, Norway.
- Frontline of NATO’s defence posture against Russian aggression.
Russia–NATO Tensions:
- Escalated after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine (2022).
- Frequent airspace & maritime violations in Baltics, Black Sea, and Arctic regions.
Airspace Violation (Definition): Breach of sovereign airspace (12 nautical miles from baseline) without permission, against Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation (1944).
